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<title>HOW DOES IT WORK? — Byte Rider 06-2025 documentation</title>
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<div class="body" role="main">
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<section id="how-does-it-work">
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<h1>HOW DOES IT WORK?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-does-it-work" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
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<p>The BitByteRider RC car is powered by ESP32-C3 Breadboard & Power adapter developmemt board.
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The Schematic and KiCAd PCB board are available on <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter">GitHub</a>: <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter">https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter</a></p>
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<section id="reserved-pins-gpios">
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<h2>Reserved Pins & GPIOs<a class="headerlink" href="#reserved-pins-gpios" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
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<p>The following table summarizes GPIOs and pins reserved for operations purposes.</p>
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<p>The GPIO numbers correspond to those on the ESP32-C3 WROOM microcontroller. The Pin number corresponds to the pin on the Breadboard and Power adapter development board.</p>
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<section id="x-and-y-axis">
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<h3>x- and y- axis<a class="headerlink" href="#x-and-y-axis" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
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<p>The <strong>GPIO0</strong> and <strong>GPIO1</strong> assigned to measuring the voltage of x- and y- axis of the Joystick. Lastly, there is a group of GPIO pairs responsible for PWM for DC motors.</p>
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</section>
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<section id="direction-and-speed">
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<h3>Direction and Speed<a class="headerlink" href="#direction-and-speed" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
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<p>The pairs of DC motors on the left side are wired to the dedicated PWM channels. This means that <em>ESP32-C3 Breadboard DevBoard</em> can control rotation speed and direction of DC motors in pairs only (i.e. left and right side).
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Consequently, only four PWM channels are sufficient for controlling the direction of the RC car.
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Based on this constraint, the RC car can only move front, back, and turn/rotate left and right. Any other movements are not possible (i.e. diagonal or sideways).</p>
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<div class="admonition-what-is-pwm admonition">
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<p class="admonition-title">What is PWM?</p>
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<p><strong>PWM</strong> stands for Pulse Width Modulation. It is a technique used to simulate analog voltage levels using discrete digital signals. It works by
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rapidly switching a digital GPIO pin between HIGH (on) and LOW (off) states at a fixed frequency (often, at base frequency of 5 kHz).
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The duty cycle—the percentage of time the signal is HIGH in one cycle determines the effective voltage delivered to a device.</p>
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<p>A higher duty cycle increases the motor speed, and a lower duty cycle decreases the motor speed. This allows for fine-grained speed control
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without needing analog voltage regulators.</p>
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</div>
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<p>A pair of PWM channels are used per DC motor for defining their rotation speed and direction on each side.
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In particular, <strong>GPIO6</strong> and <strong>GPIO5</strong> provide PWM to the left- and right- side DC motors to rotate in a <strong>clockwise</strong> direction.
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Similarly, <strong>GPIO4</strong> and <strong>GPIO7</strong> provide PWM to the left- and right- side DC motors to rotate in a <strong>counter-clockwise</strong> direction.
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Changing PWM on each channel determines the speed and direction of the RC car.</p>
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<table class="docutils align-default">
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<thead>
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<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>GPIO Num.</p></th>
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<th class="head"><p>State</p></th>
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<th class="head"><p>Function</p></th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr class="row-even"><td><p>GPIO6
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GPIO4</p></td>
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<td><p>PWM</p></td>
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<td><p>Forward</p></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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<p>The following images illustrate various PWM duty cycles registered by oscilloscope (duty cycles 0%, 48% and 91%, resp.).</p>
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<figure class="align-default" id="id1">
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<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-0.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-0.bmp" />
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<figcaption>
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<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 0%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Link to this image">¶</a></p>
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</figcaption>
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</figure>
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<figure class="align-default" id="id2">
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<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-50.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-50.bmp" />
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<figcaption>
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<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 47.6%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Link to this image">¶</a></p>
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</figcaption>
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</figure>
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<figure class="align-default" id="id3">
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<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-95.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-95.bmp" />
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<figcaption>
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<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 90.8%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Link to this image">¶</a></p>
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</figcaption>
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</figure>
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<br/><br/><br/><br/><table class="docutils align-default">
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<thead>
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<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>GPIO</p></th>
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<th class="head"><p>Pin</p></th>
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<th class="head"><p>Function</p></th>
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<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
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<td><p>16</p></td>
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<td><p>Joystick x-axis</p></td>
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<td><p>ADC1_CH0</p></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
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<td><p>15</p></td>
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<td><p>Joystick y-axis</p></td>
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<td><p>ADC1_CH1</p></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8</p></td>
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<td><p>5</p></td>
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<td><p>Joystick push button</p></td>
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<td></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>6</p></td>
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<td><p>4</p></td>
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<td><p>PWM for clockwise rotation of left-side motors</p></td>
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<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_1</p></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-even"><td><p>5</p></td>
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<td><p>3</p></td>
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<td><p>PWM for clockwise rotation of right-side motors</p></td>
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<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_0</p></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>4</p></td>
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<td><p>2</p></td>
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<td><p>PWM for counter-clockwise rotation of right-side motors</p></td>
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<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_2</p></td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="row-even"><td><p>7</p></td>
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<td><p>6</p></td>
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<td><p>PWM for counter-clockwise rotation of left-side motors</p></td>
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<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_3</p></td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</section>
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</section>
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<section id="fusion-of-software-with-hardware">
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<h2>Fusion of Software with Hardware<a class="headerlink" href="#fusion-of-software-with-hardware" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
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<p>The <em>struct</em> for storing motors PWM values.</p>
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<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">motors_rpm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor2_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor3_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor4_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="p">};</span>
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</pre></div>
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</div>
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<p>The function for updating motors’ PWM values.</p>
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<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Function to send data to the receiver</span>
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<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">sendData</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">sensors_data_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Declare data struct</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">crc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">nav_bttn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor2_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor3_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor4_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Display brief summary of data being sent.</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"Joystick (x,y) position ( 0x%04X, 0x%04X )"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"pwm 1, pwm 2 [ 0x%04X, 0x%04X ]"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"pwm 3, pwm 4 [ 0x%04X, 0x%04X ]"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Call ESP-NOW function to send data (MAC address of receiver, pointer to the memory holding data & data length)</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">esp_now_send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">receiver_mac</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">));</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// If status is NOT OK, display error message and error code (in hexadecimal).</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">!=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"ESP-NOW"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"Error sending data! Error code: 0x%04X"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">deletePeer</span><span class="p">();</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">else</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"ESP-NOW"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"Data was sent."</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="p">}</span>
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</pre></div>
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</div>
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<p>The onDataReceived() and onDataSent() are two call-bacl functions that get evoked on each corresponding event.</p>
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<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Call-back for the event when data is being received</span>
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<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">onDataReceived</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">mac_addr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">data_len</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sensors_data_t</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Allocate memory for buffer to store data being received</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"Data was received"</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"x-axis: 0x%04x"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"x-axis: 0x%04x"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"PWM 1: 0x%04x"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="p">}</span>
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||
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<span class="c1">// Call-back for the event when data is being sent</span>
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||
<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">onDataSent</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">mac_addr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">esp_now_send_status_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">"Packet send status: 0x%04X"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">);</span>
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<span class="p">}</span>
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</pre></div>
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</div>
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<p>The rc_send_data_task() function runs every 0.1 second to transmit the data to the receiver.</p>
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<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Continous, periodic task that sends data.</span>
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<span class="k">static</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">rc_send_data_task</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">while</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">true</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
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<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">esp_now_is_peer_exist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">receiver_mac</span><span class="p">))</span>
|
||
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">sendData</span><span class="p">();</span>
|
||
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">vTaskDelay</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">/</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">portTICK_PERIOD_MS</span><span class="p">);</span>
|
||
<span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
|
||
<span class="p">}</span>
|
||
</pre></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
<section id="schematic">
|
||
<h2>Schematic<a class="headerlink" href="#schematic" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_schematic.png" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_schematic.png" />
|
||
</section>
|
||
</section>
|
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<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html">OVERVIEW</a></li>
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<li class="toctree-l1 current"><a class="current reference internal" href="#">HOW DOES IT WORK?</a><ul>
|
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<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#reserved-pins-gpios">Reserved Pins & GPIOs</a></li>
|
||
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#fusion-of-software-with-hardware">Fusion of Software with Hardware</a></li>
|
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<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#schematic">Schematic</a></li>
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