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<title>2. HOW DOES IT WORK? &#8212; Byte Rider 06-2025 documentation</title>
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<section id="how-does-it-work">
<h1><span class="section-number">2. </span>HOW DOES IT WORK?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-does-it-work" title="Link to this heading"></a></h1>
<p>The BitByteRider RC car is powered by ESP32-C3 Breadboard &amp; Power adapter developmemt board.
The Schematic and KiCAd PCB board are available on <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter">GitHub</a>: <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter">https://github.com/alexandrebobkov/ESP32-C3_Breadboard-Adapter</a></p>
<section id="reserved-pins-gpios">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.1. </span>Reserved Pins &amp; GPIOs<a class="headerlink" href="#reserved-pins-gpios" title="Link to this heading"></a></h2>
<p>The following table summarizes GPIOs and pins reserved for operations purposes.</p>
<p>The GPIO numbers correspond to those on the ESP32-C3 WROOM microcontroller. The Pin number corresponds to the pin on the Breadboard and Power adapter development board.</p>
<section id="reading-the-joystick-x-and-y-axis">
<h3><span class="section-number">2.1.1. </span>Reading the Joystick x- and y- axis<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-the-joystick-x-and-y-axis" title="Link to this heading"></a></h3>
<p>To determine the position of the Joystick, the BitRider RC car uses ADC to measure voltage on two GPIOs connected to the joystic
x- and y- axis potentionometers (<strong>GPIO0</strong> and <strong>GPIO1</strong>).</p>
</section>
<section id="controlling-the-direction-and-speed">
<h3><span class="section-number">2.1.2. </span>Controlling the Direction and Speed<a class="headerlink" href="#controlling-the-direction-and-speed" title="Link to this heading"></a></h3>
<p>To set any desired speed of BiteRider RC car, the <em>ESP32-C3 Breadboard Adapter DevBoard</em> uses PWM to control the rotation speed
of DR motors. Similarly, to set the direction of the RC car, the rotation speed of corresponding DC motors is changed as required.</p>
<p>Due to the design and limited number of available GPIOs, the <em>ESP32-C3 Breadboard DevBoard</em> can control rotation speed and direction
of DC motors in pairs only (i.e. left and right side). Consequently, this means that the four PWM channels used for controlling the
direction of the RC car.</p>
<p>Based on this constraint, the RC car can only move front, back, and turn/rotate left and right. Any other movements are not
possible (i.e. diagonal or sideways).</p>
<p><span class="math notranslate nohighlight">\(PWM_{left} = PWM_{right}\)</span></p>
<div class="math notranslate nohighlight">
\[PWM_{left} = PWM_{right}\]</div>
<div class="admonition-what-is-pwm admonition">
<p class="admonition-title">What is PWM?</p>
<p><strong>PWM</strong> stands for Pulse Width Modulation. It is a technique used to simulate analog voltage levels using discrete digital signals. It works by
rapidly switching a digital GPIO pin between HIGH (on) and LOW (off) states at a fixed frequency (often, at base frequency of 5 kHz).
The duty cycle—the percentage of time the signal is HIGH in one cycle determines the effective voltage delivered to a device.
A higher duty cycle increases the motor speed, and a lower duty cycle decreases the motor speed. This allows for fine-grained speed control
without needing analog voltage regulators.</p>
</div>
<p>A pair of PWM channels are used per DC motor for defining their rotation speed and direction on each side.
In particular, <strong>GPIO6</strong> and <strong>GPIO5</strong> provide PWM to the left- and right- side DC motors to rotate in a <strong>clockwise</strong> direction.
Similarly, <strong>GPIO4</strong> and <strong>GPIO7</strong> provide PWM to the left- and right- side DC motors to rotate in a <strong>counter-clockwise</strong> direction.
Changing PWM on each channel determines the speed and direction of the RC car.</p>
<p>The table below summarizes the GPIO pins used for PWM to control the direction of the DC motors in the remote-controlled car.</p>
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>GPIOs</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>State</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>Description</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>Function</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>GPIO6,
GPIO4</p></td>
<td><p>PWM</p></td>
<td><p>Left &amp; Right DC Motors spin
clockwise</p></td>
<td><p>Forward</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>GPIO5,
GPIO7</p></td>
<td><p>PWM</p></td>
<td><p>Left &amp; Right DC Motors spin
counterclockwise</p></td>
<td><p>Reverse</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>GPIO6,
GPIO7</p></td>
<td><p>PWM</p></td>
<td><p>Left DC Motors spin clockwise.
Right DC Motors spin counterclockwise</p></td>
<td><p>Left</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>GPIO4,
GPIO5</p></td>
<td><p>PWM</p></td>
<td><p>Left DC Motors spin counterclockwise.
Right DC Motors spin clockwise</p></td>
<td><p>Right</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>The following images illustrate various PWM duty cycles registered by oscilloscope (duty cycles 0%, 48% and 91%, resp.).</p>
<figure class="align-default" id="id1">
<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-0.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-0.bmp" />
<figcaption>
<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 0%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id1" title="Link to this image"></a></p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-default" id="id2">
<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-50.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-50.bmp" />
<figcaption>
<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 47.6%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id2" title="Link to this image"></a></p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-default" id="id3">
<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-95.bmp" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_PWM_Duty-95.bmp" />
<figcaption>
<p><span class="caption-text">DC Motor PWM duty cycle 90.8%</span><a class="headerlink" href="#id3" title="Link to this image"></a></p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<br/><br/><br/><br/><table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"><p>GPIO</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>Pin</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>Function</p></th>
<th class="head"><p>Notes</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>0</p></td>
<td><p>16</p></td>
<td><p>Joystick x-axis</p></td>
<td><p>ADC1_CH0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>1</p></td>
<td><p>15</p></td>
<td><p>Joystick y-axis</p></td>
<td><p>ADC1_CH1</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>8</p></td>
<td><p>5</p></td>
<td><p>Joystick push button</p></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>6</p></td>
<td><p>4</p></td>
<td><p>PWM for clockwise rotation of left-side motors</p></td>
<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_1</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>5</p></td>
<td><p>3</p></td>
<td><p>PWM for clockwise rotation of right-side motors</p></td>
<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><p>4</p></td>
<td><p>2</p></td>
<td><p>PWM for counter-clockwise rotation of right-side motors</p></td>
<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_2</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><p>7</p></td>
<td><p>6</p></td>
<td><p>PWM for counter-clockwise rotation of left-side motors</p></td>
<td><p>LEDC_CHANNEL_3</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</section>
</section>
<section id="fusion-of-software-with-hardware">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.2. </span>Fusion of Software with Hardware<a class="headerlink" href="#fusion-of-software-with-hardware" title="Link to this heading"></a></h2>
<p>The <em>struct</em> for storing motors PWM values.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">motors_rpm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor2_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor3_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">motor4_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The function for updating motors’ PWM values.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Function to send data to the receiver</span>
<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">sendData</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">sensors_data_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Declare data struct</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">crc</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">nav_bttn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor2_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor3_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">motor4_rpm_pwm</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Display brief summary of data being sent.</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;Joystick (x,y) position ( 0x%04X, 0x%04X )&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;pwm 1, pwm 2 [ 0x%04X, 0x%04X ]&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;pwm 3, pwm 4 [ 0x%04X, 0x%04X ]&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Call ESP-NOW function to send data (MAC address of receiver, pointer to the memory holding data &amp; data length)</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">esp_now_send</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">receiver_mac</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">));</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// If status is NOT OK, display error message and error code (in hexadecimal).</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">!=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;ESP-NOW&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;Error sending data! Error code: 0x%04X&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">deletePeer</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">else</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;ESP-NOW&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;Data was sent.&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The onDataReceived() and onDataSent() are two call-bacl functions that get evoked on each corresponding event.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Call-back for the event when data is being received</span>
<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">onDataReceived</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">mac_addr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">data_len</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sensors_data_t</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Allocate memory for buffer to store data being received</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;Data was received&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;x-axis: 0x%04x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">x_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;x-axis: 0x%04x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">y_axis</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGI</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;PWM 1: 0x%04x&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">buf</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">motor1_rpm_pwm</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="c1">// Call-back for the event when data is being sent</span>
<span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">onDataSent</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">uint8_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">mac_addr</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">esp_now_send_status_t</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ESP_LOGW</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">TAG</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s">&quot;Packet send status: 0x%04X&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">status</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The rc_send_data_task() function runs every 0.1 second to transmit the data to the receiver.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Continous, periodic task that sends data.</span>
<span class="k">static</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">rc_send_data_task</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">while</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">true</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">esp_now_is_peer_exist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">receiver_mac</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">sendData</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="n">vTaskDelay</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">/</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">portTICK_PERIOD_MS</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="schematic">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.3. </span>Schematic<a class="headerlink" href="#schematic" title="Link to this heading"></a></h2>
<img alt="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_schematic.png" src="_images/ESP-IDF_Robot_schematic.png" />
</section>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="intro.html">1. OVERVIEW</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1 current"><a class="current reference internal" href="#">2. HOW DOES IT WORK?</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#reserved-pins-gpios">2.1. Reserved Pins &amp; GPIOs</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-the-joystick-x-and-y-axis">2.1.1. Reading the Joystick x- and y- axis</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="#controlling-the-direction-and-speed">2.1.2. Controlling the Direction and Speed</a></li>
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<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#fusion-of-software-with-hardware">2.2. Fusion of Software with Hardware</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="#schematic">2.3. Schematic</a></li>
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<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="data.html">3. DATA STRUCTS</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="transmitter.html">4. TRANSMITTER</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="receiver.html">5. RECEIVER</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="progress.html">6. WORK-IN-PROGRESS WALK THROUGH</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="references.html">7. REFERENCES</a></li>
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